Pediatric Diphtheria Differential Diagnoses

1. Lai J, Fay KE, Bocchini JA. Update on childhood and adolescent immunizations: selected review of US recommendations and literature: part 2. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2011 Aug. 23(4):470-81. [Medline].

2. Dittmann S, Wharton M, Vitek C, et al. Successful control of epidemic diphtheria in the states of the Former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: lessons learned. J Infect Dis. 2000 Feb. 181 Suppl 1:S10-22. [Medline].

3. Golaz A, Hardy IR, Strebel P, et al. Epidemic diphtheria in the Newly Independent States of the Former Soviet Union: implications for diphtheria control in the United States. J Infect Dis. 2000 Feb. 181 Suppl 1:S237-43. [Medline].

4. Oyo-Ita A, Nwachukwu CE, Oringanje C, Meremikwu MM. Interventions for improving coverage of child immunization in low- and middle-income countries. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011 Jul 6. CD008145. [Medline].

5. Swart EM, van Gageldonk PG, de Melker HE, van der Klis FR, Berbers GA, Mollema L. Long-Term Protection against Diphtheria in the Netherlands after 50 Years of Vaccination: Results from a Seroepidemiological Study. PLoS One. 2016. 11 (2):e0148605. [Medline].

6. Lurie P, Stafford H, Tran P. Fatal respiratory diphtheria in a U.S. traveler to Haiti--Pennsylvania, 2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2004 Jan 9. 52(53):1285-6. [Medline].

7. Januszkiewicz-Lewandowska D, Gowin E, Bocian J, Zając-Spychała O, Małecka I, Stryczyńska-Kazubska J, et al. Vaccine-Derived Immunity in Children With Cancer-Analysis of Anti-Tetanus and Anti-Diphtheria Antibodies Changes after Completion of Antineoplastic Therapy. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2015 Dec. 62 (12):2108-13. [Medline].

8. Kretsinger K, Broder KR, Cortese MM, et al. Preventing tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis among adults: use of tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid and acellular pertussis vaccine recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) and recommendation of ACIP, supported by the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC), for use of Tdap among health-care personnel. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006 Dec 15. 55:1-37. [Medline]. [Full Text].

9. Murphy TV, Slade BA, Broder KR, et al. Prevention of pertussis, tetanus, and diphtheria among pregnant and postpartum women and their infants recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2008 May 30. 57:1-51. [Medline]. [Full Text].

10. Updated Recommendations for Use of Tetanus Toxoid, Reduced Diphtheria Toxoid and Acellular Pertussis Vaccine (Tdap) in Pregnant Women and Persons Who Have or Anticipate Having Close Contact with an Infant Aged MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep</i>. 2011 Oct 21. 60:1424-6. [Medline].

11. Additional recommendations for use of tetanus toxoid, reduced-content diphtheria toxoid, and acellular pertussis vaccine (Tdap). Pediatrics. 2011 Oct. 128(4):809-12. [Medline].

12. Broder KR, Cortese MM, Iskander JK, et al. Preventing tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis among adolescents: use of tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid and acellular pertussis vaccines recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006 Mar 24. 55(RR-3):1-34. [Medline]. [Full Text].

13. AAP. Diphtheria. Committee on Infectious Disease. The Red Book. 26th ed. American Academy of Pediatrics; 2003. 263-6.

14. Boughton B. Diphtheria Vaccine Administered in the Thigh Appears Safer. Medscape Medical News. Jan 14 2013. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/777585. Accessed: March 18, 2013.

15. Chen RT, Broome CV, Weinstein RA, et al. Diphtheria in the United States, 1971-81. Am J Public Health. 1985 Dec. 75(12):1393-7. [Medline].

16. Farizo KM, Strebel PM, Chen RT, et al. Fatal respiratory disease due to Corynebacterium diphtheriae: case report and review of guidelines for management, investigation, and control. Clin Infect Dis. 1993 Jan. 16(1):59-68. [Medline].

17. Galazka A. The changing epidemiology of diphtheria in the vaccine era. J Infect Dis. 2000 Feb. 181 Suppl 1:S2-9. [Medline].

18. Hodes HL. Diphtheria. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1979 May. 26(2):445-59. [Medline].

19. Jackson LA, Peterson D, Nelson JC, Marcy SM, Naleway AL, Nordin JD, et al. Vaccination site and risk of local reactions in children 1 through 6 years of age. Pediatrics. 2013 Feb. 131(2):283-9. [Medline].

20. Kulkarni PS, Sapru A, Bavdekar A, Naik S, Patwardhan M, Barde P, et al. Immunogenicity of two diphtheria-tetanus-whole cell pertussis-hepatitis B vaccines in infants: A comparative trial. Hum Vaccin. 2011 Sep 1. 7(9):941-4. [Medline].

21. Lewis LS, Hardy I, Strebel P, et al. Assessment of vaccination coverage among adults 30-49 years of age following a mass diphtheria vaccination campaign: Ukraine, April 1995. J Infect Dis. 2000 Feb. 181 Suppl 1:S232-6. [Medline].

22. Long SS. Diphtheria. Behrman RE, Kliegman R, Jenson HB, eds. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 16th ed. WB Saunders Co; 2000. 817-20.

23. Long SS, Pickering LK, Prober CG. Corynebacterium diphtheriae. Principles and Practice of Pediatric Infectious Diseases. Churchill Livingstone; 1997. 861.

24. Lubran MM. Bacterial toxins. Ann Clin Lab Sci. 1988 Jan-Feb. 18(1):58-71. [Medline].

25. Mattos-Guaraldi AL, Moreira LO, Damasco PV. Diphtheria Remains a Threat to Health in the Developing World- An Overview. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro. 2003. 98(8):987-93.

26. McMillan JA, Feigin RD. Diphtheria. McMillan JA, Warshaw JB, DeAngelis CD, eds. Oski's Pediatrics: Principles and Practice. 3rd ed. Wolters Kluwer Co; 1999. 961-4.

27. Prospero E, Raffo M, Bagnoli M, et al. Diphtheria: epidemiological update and review of prevention and control strategies. Eur J Epidemiol. 1997 Jul. 13(5):527-34. [Medline].

Cem S Demirci, MD Consulting Staff, Division of Endocrinology/Diabetes, Connecticut Children's Medical Center

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Walid Abuhammour, MD, MBA, CIC, FAAP, FIDSA Professor of Pediatrics, Michigan State University College of Human Medicine; Adjunct Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Hashemite University, Jordan; Head of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Al Jalila Children's Hospital, UAE

Walid Abuhammour, MD, MBA, CIC, FAAP, FIDSA is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, International Society for Infectious Diseases, International Society for Infectious Diseases, Jordan Medical Association, Jordan Pediatric Society, Michigan Infectious Disease Society, Michigan State Medical Society, National Arab American Medical Association, Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Mary L Windle, PharmD Adjunct Associate Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Joseph Domachowske, MD Professor of Pediatrics, Microbiology and Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, State University of New York Upstate Medical University

Joseph Domachowske, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Pediatrics, American Society for Microbiology, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, Phi Beta Kappa

Disclosure: Received research grant from: Pfizer;GlaxoSmithKline;AstraZeneca;Merck;American Academy of Pediatrics, Novavax, Regeneron, Diassess, Actelion<br/>Received income in an amount equal to or greater than $250 from: Sanofi Pasteur.

Russell W Steele, MD Clinical Professor, Tulane University School of Medicine; Staff Physician, Ochsner Clinic Foundation

Russell W Steele, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics, American Association of Immunologists, American Pediatric Society, American Society for Microbiology, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Louisiana State Medical Society, Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, Society for Pediatric Research, Southern Medical Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Ashir Kumar, MD, MBBS FAAP, Professor Emeritus, Department of Pediatrics and Human Development, Michigan State University College of Human Medicine

Ashir Kumar, MD, MBBS is a member of the following medical societies: Infectious Diseases Society of America, American Association of Physicians of Indian Origin

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

• Print this section
• Print the entire contents of
• Print the entire contents of article